The+Human+Genome+Project+by+Chives+Pilar+Keyes

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 =What is the Human Genome Project? =

The Human Genome Project was a 13-year-long, publicly funded project that began in 1990 with the goal of determining the DNA sequence

of the entire human genome within 15 years. In earlier times, the Human Genome Project was criticized by many people, who

questioned whether the huge cost of the project would outweigh the potential benefits. Today, however,

the overwhelming success of the Human Genome Project is obvious. Not only did the completion of this project create many new types of medicine, but it also led to significant advances in the types of technology used to sequence DNA.

[|Human Genome Project Timeline]



=How does it work? = = =

DNA holds the to information make an entire human being coded into the DNA sequence. There are four letters in the code- called bases, and the order of the bases encodes the instructions to make up a human, and the instructions used to make molecules in our bodies are called genes. The task of the Human Genome Project was to read these genetic instructions and then give the information to researchers from around the world. All of the information discovered in the Human Genome Project was released online, so anybody can access it. The data is used by researchers and scientists to learn how humans function, and ultimately to undestand genetic diseases and to look for new tests and treatments.

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=What is the science behind it? =

Overall: Your gene instructions are grouped into two sets of 23 'volumes', known as chromosomes, each containing millions of DNA letters, or base pairs. To help them read the entire human genome, scientists took each ‘volume’ and compiled an 'index' – a chromosome map. To read the order of letters, scientists first broke up each chromosome into sets of overlapping pieces. They then used machines to read the order of the letters in each piece. With the aid of computers and the chromosome maps, they could reconstruct the order of letters in the complete chromosome.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">However, there are many intricate steps and different ways to sequence a genome. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">- Sequencing means determining the exact order of the base pairs in a segment of DNA.

<span style="color: #409ad5; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Bac-Based Sequencing
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The primary method used by the Human Genome Project to produce the finished version of the human genetic code is map-based, or BAC-based, sequencing. (BAC is the acronym for "bacterial artificial chromosome"). <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Human DNA is first fragmented into relatively large pieces but still manageable in size (between 150,000 and 200,000 base pairs). The fragments are then cloned in bacteria, which then stores and replicate the human DNA so that it can be prepared in large quantities for sequencing. Bacteria is very commonly used in various labs because of its distinct ability to reproduce and grow rapidly. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">In the BAC-based method, each BAC clone is "mapped" to determine where the DNA in BAC clones comes from in the human genome to ensure the precise location of the DNA letters that are sequenced from each clone and their relation to sequenced human DNA in other BAC clones. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">For sequencing, each BAC clone is cut into still smaller fragments that are about 2,000 bases in length. These pieces are called "subclones." A "sequencing reaction" is carried out on these subclones. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The products of the sequencing reaction are then loaded into the sequencing machine (sequencer). The sequencer generates about 500 to 800 base pairs of A, T, C and G from each sequencing reaction, so that each base is sequenced about 10 times. A computer then assembles these short sequences into contiguous stretches of sequence representing the human DNA in the BAC clone.



<span style="color: #409ad5; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Clone-by-clone sequencing
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Another approach some scientists working on the Human Genome Project was called "clone-by-clone" sequencing. The chromosomes were mapped and then split up into smaller sections. A basic, rough map was drawn for each of these sections, and then the sections themselves were split into even smaller bits, with plenty of overlap between each of the bits. Each of these smaller bits would be sequenced, and the overlapping bits would be used to put the genome puzzle back together again. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">First, by mapping the genome, researchers produced a genetic resource that can be used to map genes. In addition, because every DNA sequence is derived from a known region, it is relatively easy to keep track of the project and to determine where there are gaps in the sequence. Moreover, assembly of relatively short regions of DNA is an efficient step. However, mapping can be a time-consuming, and costly, process.





<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">-DNA <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">-bacteria

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">-computers <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">-gene maps

= = =<span style="color: #409ad5; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">What is it used for? = = = <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Overall, the Human Genome Project was based upon pure curiosity. Scientists wondered how humans are engineered, and how our genes work so meticulously to make us who we are. The Human Genome Project is similar to earlier times when a great deal of the world was undiscovered. No one knew what they would find or how exactly they would get there, but they did know there was the potential that it would come with benefits and their curiosity drove them forward.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">With scientists' relentless curiosity, a great deal of medical research has been done to help with genetic disorders.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Scientists are now able to:
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">better diagnosis of disease
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">early detection of certain diseases is now available
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">more advanced gene therapy and control systems
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">identified single genes associated with a number of diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, myotonic dystrophy, neurofibromatosis, and retinoblastoma
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">New technologies developed for genome research can enable mapping of the genomes of economically important farm animals and crops.

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=<span style="color: #409ad5; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Human Genome on TV = <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">An entire movie has been made by PBS NOVA, which "chronicles the fiercely competitive race to capture one of the biggest scientific prizes ever: the complete letter-by-letter sequence of genetic information that defines human life—the human genome. NOVA tells the story of the genome triumph and its profound implications for medicine and human health".

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The program can be watched: [|HERE]

=<span style="color: #409ad5; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Activites: =

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">[|Sequence for Yourself] <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Solve a Genome Puzzle!

=<span style="color: #409ad5; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Further Readings: =

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">[|Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues of HGP] [|Research Archive]

Works Cited